Glossary: Public Health and You
ableism: discrimination or prejudice against those with a disability or those who are perceived to have a disability.
acculturation: adoption of host country norms, attitudes and lifestyles.
adapative immune system: a subsystem of the immune system that is composed of specialized cells and processes that eliminate pathogens. It’s called “adaptive” because this part of the immune system learns to recognize pathogens. The adaptive immune system is unique to each person because it depends on what they have been exposed to in the past.
Affordable Care Act (ACA): a healthcare form law enacted in 2010 which provided consumers with subsidies that lower costs for households and extend health insurance coverage.
agent: a virus, bacteria or other pathogen.
air pollution: the presence of substances in the air that have harmful health effects. Air pollution can be a mixture of both solid particles and gases, and can include things such as chemicals, dust, pollen, and mold spores.
algorithm: series of instructions to do something useful or solve a problem.
allostatic load: the accumulation of wear and tear on the body systems as a result of repeatedly being exposed to stress.
Americans with Disablities Act: a law passed in 1990 that prohibits discrimination based on disability.
anchoring bias: a tendency to rely on the first piece of evidence or information you hear about a topic.
antibiotics: medications that specifically target bacteria. They either directly kill bacteria or make it very hard for the bacteria to grow and multiply.
antibiotic resistance: bacteria develop the ability to resist and defeat antibiotics, so that they can continue to grow.
antibodies: a protein produced by the body's immune system when it detects harmful substances, called antigens. Antibodies fight and attack foreign pathogens in the body to trigger innate and adaptive immune systems.
antibody test: a test that detects antibodies to the virus using a blood sample.
antigen: a toxin or other foreing substance that causes an immune response.
antigen test: a test that looks at any viral proteins in a sample taken from an individual. While antigen tests - or rapid tests - give fast results, they are not always accurate.
assessment: the regular collection, analysis and sharing of information about health conditions, problems, risks, and resources in a community. This is one of the three core functions of public health.
assurance: making sure that all populations have access to appropriate and cost-effective care, including health promotion and disease prevention services. This is one of the threecore functions of public health.
asymptomatic carriers: people who are infected but has no symptoms.
autonomy: the freedom to determine one's own health through one's own actions.
b-cells: cells in the adaptive immune system that produce antibodies. The two types of B-cells are plasma b-cells and memory b-cells.
bacteria: a single-celled microorganism that has DNA and can replicate itself. Bacteria are not visible to the naked eye.
basic reproductive number (R0): the number of people each infected person would infect by their normal interactions before they stop being contagious if everyone in the population can be infected.
beneficence: the moral obligation, or requirement, to help others and maximize people's health.
Beveridge Model: a healthcare system where the government provides healthcare to all its citizens through income taxes.
bias: an error in the way that a study is designed, conducted, or analyzed. It is caused by the influence of the researchers and affects the results of the study.
binding antibody: antibodies that bind to antigens and alert the immune system to the foreign presence.
Bismarck model: a healthcare system where the insurance system is financed by both the employer and the employee.
booster shot: if immunity is waning in vaccinated populations, people may need a booster shot to ensure the vaccine’s effectiveness. This shot provides another dose of the vaccine that is meant to boost immunity against a disease.
built environment: a term used to refer to the parts of our surroundings that were made by humans and for the purpose of human activity. This includes things such as homes, buildings, roads, and cars.
carbohydrates: the major source of energy for the body. Includes sugars and complex sugars such as starch.
case-control study: an observational study that helps determine if an exposure is associated with an outcome. In case-control studies researchers identify the cases and controls first, and then they look back in time for an exposure.
causation: one variable directly causes another variable to change.
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): an agency within the US government that helps control the spread of contagious and chronic diseases.
central nervous system (CNS): controls the functions of the body and mind. It consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP): insurance program that provides low-cost health coverage to children in families that earn too much money to qualify for Medicaid but not enough to buy private insurance.
Cholera: an infectious disease of the small intestine that is caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae. Typically, people get this disease from infected water supplies and symptoms include severe vomiting and diarrhea.
chronic stress: stress that a person experiences everyday over a prolonged length of time.
citizen science: the practice of public participation in the conduction of scientific research to expand scientific knowledge. This is often done in collaboration with scientists and scientific institutions.
clinical significance: an association is clinically significant if it holds importance and makes an actual difference.
close-ended question: questions that can be answered with “yes” or “no,” or a question that has a limited set of possible answers.
cohort study: an observational study that follows a cohort of people over time.
coinsurance: the percentage of costs you pay after you’ve met your deductible.
comorbidity: when a person has two or more illnesses at the same time.
community-based participatory research (CBPR): a research approach that involves collective, reflective and systematic inquiry in which researchers and community stakeholders are equal partners in all steps of the research process. The goal is educating, improving practice or bringing about social change.
concierge medicine: fee for care service where a doctor, or group of doctors, charges you a membership fee. Once you “join”, you’re able to directly call any doctor in the group. This cuts out the insurance company as the “middle man”.
confidentiality: confidentiality is the requirement for public health professionals to hold people's information and to not share it with anyone.
confirmation bias: a tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of existing beliefs or theories.
confounder: a variable that influences both the independent variable and dependent variable, which can alter the association between those variables.
confounding: a systematic error in a study that is caused by a third variable interfering in the relationship of the independent and dependent variable.
conjugate vaccine: a type of vaccine that combines a weak antigen with a strong antigen so that the immune system has a stronger response to a weak antigen.
contact tracing: talking to everyone an infected person has been in contact with and asking those contacts to quarantine so that they don’t spread the disease to others.
containment: precautions that government take to keep disease from being transmitted too quickly.
copay: a fixed amount for a covered service, paid by a patient to the provider of service before receiving the service.
COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a condition in which there is a chronic obstruction of airflow in the lungs that interferes with normal breathing and is not fully reversible (WHO).
correlation: an association between two variables.
Cortisol: a hormone that is made by the body and mainly released during times of stress. This hormone is needed to respond to perceived threats and having too much or too little cortisol within the body can lead to health problems.
cross-sectional study: an observational study that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.
cytokine: protein factors that are secreted by the immune system during an inflammatory response.
cytokine storm: an overproduction of cytokines that causes other immune cells to produce more cytokines. Eventually leads to organ damage. This is a very dangerous stage of illness.
cytotoxic t-cells: T-cells that can directly kill infected cells.
deductibles: amount you pay for covered health care services before your insurance plan starts to pay.
dependent variable: the variable being tested and measured in a scientific study. It is dependent on other factors.
determinants of health: the range of biological, environmental, and social factors that determine or influence the health status of individuals and populations.
direct transmission: when the disease-causing organism is directly transferred from one host to another.
disability: the restriction that happens when society doesn't accommodate impairments.
discrimination: unjust treatment of groups or people in groups based on prejudiced and negative views of those groups.
disease surveillance system: the collection, analysis, and interpretation of large amounts of information that are used to evaluate the effectiveness of health interventions, monitor changes in infectious diseases, and identify populations that are at high risk for diseases so that resources can be provided to these areas.
disinformation: false information that is purposely spread in order to influence public opinion or hide the truth.
DNA: the material each person carries in their cells that determines their characteristics. DNA is passed down from parent to offspring.
dominant trait: a trait that if expressed by at least one parent, is inherited by the offspring.
double blinding: when both the experimenters and participants of an RCT study do not know who is in the treatment group and who is in the control group.
early phase of COVID-19: a lot of the symptoms are similar to cold symptoms.
ecosystem: the group of living and nonliving things that interact with each other in an environment.
emerging infectious diseases: an outbreak of a previously unknown disease to humans; known diseases that are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range in the last 20 years; persistence of infectious diseases that cannot be controlled.
emissions: something that is released or discharged into the world. In public health, this often refers to substances or partilces that are released into the air. For instance, car exhaust is an example of an emission.
employee-sponsored insurance (ESI): health insurance policy selected and purchased by your employer and offered to eligible employees and their dependents.
endemic: disease is at a continuous or normal expectancy rate in a population.
environmental justice: the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): an agency within the US government that enforces and creates environmental protection laws.
environmental racism: discrimination where communities of color are forced by environmental policies and government decisions to live near hazardous exposures that are harmful to their health.
epidemic: disease prevalence and incidence exceeds what would reasonably be considered a normal or acceptable rate.
epidemiology: the study of the distribution and determinants of diseases and injuiries in populations.
epigenetics: a change in the expression of genes that is influenced by interactions with the environment and does not involve a change of the DNA sequence.
eradicate (a disease): the number of new cases is 0. We have only completely eradicated smallpox.
Exclusive Provider Organization (EPO): health insurance plan that only allows you to get health care services from doctors, hospitals, and other care providers who are within a certain network.
experimental data: data that is gathered after doing some sort of intervention in a lab or population.
fats: the major storage source of energy, helps our bodies absorb vitamins, helps protect our organs, and is used within the body to make other molecules. Too much fat can be unhealthy and can cause clogged arteries which may lead to cardiovascular disease.
first generation immigrant: an immigrant who was born in another country.
Flattening the Curve: a public health strategy to reduce the number of people who have COVID-19 at any one time. The goal is to prevent hospitals from being overwhelmed by a large number of patients all at once.
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA): an agency within the US government that regulates food and drug safety.
gender: how a person views themselves according to socialized roles of men, women, and/or other genders.
genes: made up of DNA and carries traits which are passed down from generation to generation through a process called heredity.
genetics: the science of how traits, or characteristics, of people are passed down through generations.
greenhouse gases: gases that trap heat within the Earth’s atmosphere. These gases prevent the heat that enters the atmosphere with sunlight from leaving, and they contribute to climate change and Earth’s rising temperatures. The main greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide.
halo effect: our impressions and feelings about a person influences how accurate we think they are.
harm reduction: a range of public health policies designed to lessen the negative social and/or physical consequences associated with various human behaviors.
health inequity: differences in health status between groups that arise from socioeconomic factors.
Health Maintenance Organization (HMO): an HMO gives you access to certain doctors and hospitals within its network.
health policy: health policy refers to decisions, plans, and actions taht are undertaken to achieve specific health care goals within a society (WHO).
healthy immigrant paradox: when immigrants are on average healthier than the native born.
helper t-cells: T-cells that help activate the immune response.
herd immunity: occurs when a large enough portion of the population becomes immunized from a virus or bacteria so that disease spread decreases. This protects people who can’t take vaccines for health reasons like allergies.
herd immunity threshold (HIT): percentage of a community needed to achieve herd immunity (1/R0).
heredity: the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring.
hormones: chemicals produced in the body that control the activity of different body parts.
host: the organism that a bacteria, virus, parasite, or fungus transmits a disease to.
hygiene hypothesis: the lack of exposure to particular microorganisms during early childhood exposure leads to a more reactive immune system. The immune system then reacts to innocuous things like eggs and peanuts, leading to allergies.
hypothesis: an idea or theory that is not proven, but leads to further study or discussion (merriam webster).
immunity: protection from an infectious disease.
impairments: the actual traits a person has (or does not have), such as blindness or difficulty walking.
implicit bias: the unconscious beliefs that are placed upon us by societal influences that can shape how we treat others.
inactivated vaccine: contain whole bacteria or viruses that have been killed, or parts of a bacteria or virus such as their proteins and sugars, both of which cannot cause the disease in question.
incidence: the number of new cases of a disease in a population during a specific time period; the proportion or rate of people who develop the condition or disease during a specific time period.
independent variable: the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific study to test the effects on the dependent variable.
indirect transmission: when the disease-causing organism is transferred from one host to another by an object, another organism, or through some other means.
individual plans: coverage that an individual can purchase on their own, on an individual or family basis, as opposed to obtaining through an employer.
industrialization: the large scale transformation of an agricultural economy to one based on the manufacturing of goods. It involves the widespread development of industries and mass production in a region.
information bias: an error that occurs when measuring exposures and outcomes and that can influence the results of a study.
informed consent: the process of informing research participants of all the potential benefits and risks that many occur, and participants fully understanding and agreeing to these conditions.
innate immune sysem: a subset of the immune system that is the first line of defence against pathogens. The innate immune system is similar across all humans.
internalized racism: when an individual accepts certain stereotypes about their racial group.
interpersonal racism: prejudice and discrimination between individuals based on racial group or perceived racial group. They include lack of respect, suspicion, making people feel like they are not human, and making people feel devalued.
intersectionality: how various aspects of a person’s social identity interact to influence life experiences including advantages and discrimination.
intervention: a program or policy design to have a beneficial effect on a health problem.
latent period: the period between when someone gets infected and when the virus shows up on the test. HIV is a common example of a virus with a latent period.
late phase of COVID-19: while most people will get better and don't reach this late phase, a lot of people do. This stage of COVID-19 happens because our body's immune and inflammatory response to the virus damages tissues and organs like the lungs, heart, etc. Symptoms can land people in the ICU and lead to death.
lateral reading: reading across multiple sites in order to verify the information.
life-course: examines exposures that may impact specific life stages. Each age group has key development goals that must be met during that time frame.
live attenuated vaccine: contain whole bacteria or viruses that have been weakened enough so they do not harm people but they create a protective immune response.
lobbyists: individuals that try to sway lawmakers decisions on behalf of a business or organization.
long haulers: while most people recover from COVID-19 completely in a few weeks, some people can experience symptoms after initially recovering.
macrophage: specialised cells that detect, eat and destroy bacteria and other harmful organisms. They can show antigens to T-cells and start an inflammatory response.
market place health insurance (exchanges): when you choose a plan through the state or federal marketplace.
media bias: bias journalists and news producers have which influences their choices.
Medicaid: a welfare medicine program regulated by individual states and is meant to provide insurance benefits for low-income families and individuals.
Medicare: a social insurance program regulated by the federal government that offers insurance benefits to adults ages 65 and older as long as they paid into the system for 10 years.
memory b-cells: B-cells that hold information about viruses/bacteria that the body has been exposed to. They circulate throughout the body until another infection with the same pathogen happens. Then they become plasma B-cells and start secreting antibodies.
minerals: non-living elements that are found in all body cells and are essential for normal body function. Examples include iron, iodine, and zinc.
minority stress model: used to understand how the stigma and discrimination experienced by marginalized groups exposes these individuals to greater amounts of stress compared to people who do not experience this stigma and discrimination.
misinformation: information that is not completely true or accurate. False information that is spread, whether the intention to mislead or not.
mitigation: once a disease has started to spread in a certain area, there are a number of strategies that the people and community can take to reduce spread.
mixed methods study: research that uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to answer a research question.
model: a thought or framework describing how a certain phenomenon works.
modeling: using models to help us understand the impact of infectious disease.
model minority: a minority demographic that is seen as achieving higher socioeconomic status than the average population.
molecular test: a laboratory test that checks for certain genes, proteins, or other molecules in a sample of tissue, blood, or other body fluid. Molecular tests also check for certain changes in a gene or chromosome that may cause or affect the chance of developing a specific disease or disorder, such as cancer.
monitoring and evaluation (M&E): gathering information on public health programs and assessing whether they meet expected goals.
natural environment: all living and nonliving things that occur naturally in an area. This includes air, water, soil, animals, plants, and other natural resources that are not built by humans.
natural immunity: immunity that comes naturally from being exposed to a disease or organism that creates an immune resposne. Requires exposure from the acutal disease (not via a vaccine).
natural infection: enough people have been exposed to the disease and have developed natural immunity to the disease.
neutralizing antibody: antibodies that stop a pathogen from infecting the body by affecting the virus itself.
nonmaleficence: inflicting the least amount of harm possible.
non-pharmaceutical intervention (NPI): a prevention method that is not based on a medicine or vaccine. NPIs include face masks, physical distancing and handwashing.
non-profit organization (NPO): legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public or social benefit, in contrast with an entity that operates as a business aiming to generate a profit for its owners.
nutrition: the process of obtaining the food that is necessary for health and growth.
observational data: data that is collected simply by observation.
observer bias: bias that happens to a researcher or observer because of the tendency to see what we expect or want to see.
open-ended question: a question that allows someone to give a free-form or longer explanation as an answer.
out-of-pocket model: a healthcare system where patients pay out-of-pocket for healthcare.
out-of-pocket payment: patients pay for healthcare costs out of their own pockets.
pandemic: a disease which has spread throughout a large area or population.
partisan bias: a news organizations’ and stories’ bias towards certain political beliefs.
pathogen: a bacteria, virus or other microorganism that can cause disease.
peer review process: a system used to assess the quality of a paper before it is published. Other experts in the research area read the manuscript and checks for originality, validity and significance to help the editors decide if the manuscript should be published.
pesticides: a term for any substance intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. It does not only apply to insecticides, but also herbicides, and fungicides.
pests: organisms that occur where they are not wanted or that cause damage to crops or humans or other animals. For example, rats.
physiology: the study of how living things function. For example, a focus of physiology might be the human body and how its parts (like organs) and systems work.
plasma b-cells: B-cells that actively secrete antibodies during an infection.
pollutants: a substance introduced into the environment that has harmful effects, or adversely impacts a resource such as the air or water.
population:the entire group of people that are of interest to researchers.
Preferred Provider Organization (PPO): PPO plans allow you to visit whatever in-network physician or healthcare provider you wish without first requiring a referral from a primary care physician.
prevalence: the number of people who have a condition or disease at a period of time.
primary immune respomse: an immune response when an antigen comes in contact with the immune system for the first time. The immune system takes the time to learn how to recognize the antigen, make antibodies against and remember how to make those antibodies for the next time.
privacy: the rights of individuals to decided how their personal information is shared or not, and to be left alone.
private health insurance: any health insurance coverage that is offered by a private entity instead of a state or federal government. It can come from an employer or directly purchased from a health insurance company or the marketplace.
proteins: made up of amino acids and are the basic component of cells. Proteins can also be used as a source of energy and are essential for normal cell structure and function.
public health: the efforts we take to assure conditions in which populations can live healthily and prevent conditions that may harm them.
public health insurance: Public health insurance is insurance that is subsidized or paid for entirely by public (government) funds.
qualitative study: research that collects and works with non-numerical data.
quantitative study: research that collects and works with numerical data.
quarantine: a strict separation from others of those who reasonably believe that they have been exposed to an infectious person or persons but have not yet experienced symptoms or been tested. It is imposed to prevent the spread of disease.
racialization: the construction of racial categories and their corresponding social meaning. Racialization often increases the perceived discrimination that marginalized groups feel as a result of their race
randomization: part of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) where participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment group or the control group.
randomized control trial (RCT): an experimental study in which subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group (exposure) and a control group. Both groups are monitored over time. Researchers measure the effect of the exposure on the outcome compared to the control group.
recall bias: an error in research that occurs when participants do not remember previous events or experiences accurately, or omit details.
recessive trait: a trait that needs two copies of the recessive allele in order to be expressed (one from each parent).
reemerging infectious diseases: diseases that are known and were on the decline, but have begun to reappear (i.e. in a different form, different area).
replicability: study or experiment can be repeated and the same result happens.
research: public health research generally aims to understand the influence of biological environmental, and social factors on population health, with the goal to use the knowledge gained to inform interventions and policies to help improve health.
sample: a smaller group of people that is taken from the larger population.
sanitary inspections: a search for potential hazards that could affect the health of a population. They consist of observation checklists that are used by public health workers to assess the safety conditions of a facility and identify actions taht may be necessary to protect public health. For example, restaurants in New York City must have annual sanitary inspections to ensure that they are complying with food safety rules.
saturated fats: fats that are solid at room temperature and have only single carbon-carbon bonds. Saturated fats raise low density lipoprotein, also called “bad cholesterol” which is harmful to the body because it can lead to clogged arteries.
scientific method: way to observe, ask questions, and seek answers through a series of steps. The steps are not in a set order, but a guideline to finding answers.
secondary immune respomse: an immune response when an antigen comes into contact with the immune system during the second and subsequent times.This immune response is faster than the primary immune response.
second generation immigrant: someone who is native born with at least one foreign born parent.
selection: a term used when discussing immigration to explain how it is most often people who are healthier that immigrate to another country.
selection bias:
(1) research : an error that occurs during the recruitment of participants into a study that influences whether the groups in a study are similar to each other.
(2) media: bias in the way news stories and events are selected for publication and the news.
sensationalism: news reports with an exaggeration of the danger or commonness of an issue.
sensitivity: a test’s ability to accurately identify those with the disease (true positive).
sex: the biological characteristics of a person that make them appear to be male, female, or intersex.
sexual orientation: includes how you label yourself, your sexual behavior, and who you are attracted to.
single-payer model: a healthcare system where healthcare costs for people are covered by a single public system.
smog: a kind of air pollution that reduces visibility. It is formed when industrial sources such as power plants, factories, and cars, release particles into the atmosphere that react with heat and sunlight. Smog is common in cities with a lot of industry and traffic and causes unhealthy lung conditions among people who breathe in the air.
socioeconomic status (SES): the position or standing a person has in their society, according to social and economic factors in their life. It is often measured by a person’s income, education, and occupation.
specificity: a test that will correctly identify those without the disease (true negative).
spin: a form of propaganda that occurs through a biased interpretation of an event.
standard of care: the appropriate treatment of a condition or disease that is agreed upon by experts.
stakeholder: a person or organization with an interest in a public health program. Stakeholders can include governments, the public community, community-based organizations, healthcare groups, community leaders, and more. Often, public health programs heavily depend on stakeholder support.
statistical significance: an association is statistically significant if it is due to the actual relationship between the variables and not due to random chance.
stereotype threat: the fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s social group.
stereotyping: assuming that certain groups of people act or behave a certain way.
stigma: negative beliefs, feelings, and attitudes towards certain people based on a group of people they belong to or are perceived to belong to.
structural racism: when racial groups have different access to resources and power resulting from our institutional policies and practices.
subunit vaccine: a vaccine that presents one or more antigens to the immune system without introducing pathogen particles, whole or otherwise.
surveillance: how programs monitor the health status of populations.
task force: groups of congress people dedicated to working on policy about a specific need.
toxic waste sites: a place where unwanted material that can cause harmful health effects is deposited.
toxins: a poisonous substance that has harmful effects on living organisms.
toxoid vaccine: a vaccine made from a toxin that is produced by certain bacteria. The toxoid is made harmless, but still triggers an immune resposne.
transgender: a person whose gender identity is not the same as their birth sex.
travel advisory: limit where people can travel to avoid people carrying diseases overseas or across borders.
vaccination: the act of introducing a vaccine into the body to produce immunity to a specific disease.
vaccine: a substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases. Vaccines are created from the agent of disease, its products or a synthetic substitute. There is no or very low risk of causing the disease. Vaccines are usually administered through needle injections, but can also be administered by mouth or sprayed into the nose.
vaccine effectiveness: a measure that compares the rates of disease between vaccinated and unvaccinated people in the real world. How well the vaccine worked in preventing disease.
vaccine efficacy: a measure that compares the rates of disease between vaccinated and unvaccinated people in a lab setting under carefully controlled conditions.
variable: something that can vary or be changed. In research any characteristic, number, or quantity that can increase or decrease over time or take on different values.
vectors: organisms such as mosquitoes and ticks that can transfer infectious diseases between humans or between animals and humans.
vehicle emissions: chemicals that are released into the air as gases from the tailpipe of a vehicle. These gases usually include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrous oxide and they reduce air quality and are harmful for human health.
virus: a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside living cells of an organism. It is much much tinier than a bacteria and can infect all forms of life.
vitamins: essential to life; carry out important cellular/body functions. Must be consumed in the diet because they cannot be made by the body. There are 13 essential vitamins that are needed for the body to function properly.
walkability: a term used to describe how favorable an environment is towards walking. This often includes the presence of sidewalks and availability of public transportation.
weathering: the process through which stress from constant risk of exposure to racism creates wear and tear on the body's systems, causing poor physical health.
the World Health Organization (WHO): an international agency that works with countries to implement public health measures, especially during a pandemic.
zoonotic disease: a disease that passes from an animal or insect to a human.